Wound treatment has become a more highly developed area of scientific and commercial investigation as new research has revealed the workings of the healing process. More rapid healing of a wound reduces long term healthcare costs and improves patient recovery, including regaining of sensation, function and aesthetics.
Healing, like all other biological processes, is a cellular process. The occurrence of an injury immediately triggers the onset of this process, which continues until the injury is healed. Although its exact mode of action is not yet understood, it is clear that a feedback mechanism monitors the extent of tissue damage and adjusts cellular activity in the injured area to produce the exact amount of healing needed.
As used herein, the terms ‘wound’ and ‘injury’ refer to tissue damage or loss of any kind, including but not limited to, cuts, incisions (including surgical incisions), abrasions, lacerations, fractures, contusions, burns, amputations and the like.
Healing in general is known to be related to the degree of the injury, and the electrical potential difference between the site and surrounding intact tissue. In particular, regeneration in amphibians such as salamanders and fracture healing in mammals are associated with complex changes in the local DC (direct current) electric field. The electric field gradually returns to normal, pre-injury levels as the injury heals. Conversely, failure of the normal healing process, as in fracture nonunions, is associated with the absence of appropriate electrical signals at the site of the injury.
More particularly, and by way of example, healthy human skin exhibits an electrical potential across the epithelium, i.e., the transepithelial potential (TEP or epidermal battery). The TEP is generated by an active ionic transfer system. Sodium ions enter the outer cells of the epithelium via specific channels in the outer membrane of these cells and migrate along a steep electrochemical gradient. Through a series of electrogenic pumps that actively pump sodium ions and tight gap junctions between epithelial cells that do not allow the reverse passage of the sodium ions, the epidermal battery is generated. This results in a transport of sodium ions from the water bathing the epithelium to the internal body fluids of the animal, and the generation of a potential of the order of 10 mV to 70 mV across the epithelium.
While the general topic of wound healing has an extensive and broad literature base with excellent review papers written by Eaglstein 1984, and Eckersley and Dudley 1988, published research on the role of generated electrical potentials in the healing process has been limited.
Notwithstanding, the existence of wound currents has been recognized for more than 200 years. In early experiments, about 1 μA of current was found to leave a wound in human skin immersed in saline (Barker 1982, Jaffe 1984). In 1980, lllingworth and Barker measured currents with densities of from 10–30 μA/cm2 leaving the stump surface of children's fingers whose tips had been accidently amputated. This outflowing of current has also been called the “Current of Injury”. It is generally recognized that the electromotive force (EMF) driving currents from wounds made in skin is a direct result of disruption of the transepithelial potential (TEP). It is generally believed that ionic currents primarily generated by the epithelium's electrogenic sodium transport mechanism are responsible for the TEPlkk (epidermal battery). Founds and Barker (1983) recorded the TEP of human skin with values ranging from about minus 10 mV to almost minus 60 mV depending on the region measured. Barker (1982) reported that interruption of the sodium transport system by a blocking agent called amiloride, resulted in a reduced TEP. When amiloride is added to areas of wounding such as a laceration, the TEP is reduced to about one half its original value and the healing process was significantly slowed.
Borgens (1982) has reported that trauma or tissue damage disrupts the normal electrical pattern of the cell, tissue, or organism. It is believed that the altered electrical profile serves as a signal for or a causative agent in the repair or regenerative process.
Barker (1982) recognized that when a wound is made in the skin, an electric leak is produced that short-circuits the TEP (epidermal battery) allowing the voltage to reverse at the wound surface. With the disruption of the epithelium's electrogenic sodium transport mechanism within the wound, the TEP on the surface of the wound is significantly altered in the reverse direction. As one progresses laterally from the wound surface to normal tissue surrounding the wound, the potential across the skin is found to increase, until a point is reached at which the potential across the skin is the full value normally found in unwounded skin. Thus a lateral voltage gradient is generated in the proximity of the wound margin as one transitions from wounded tissue to normal tissue. Jaffe and Vanable (1984) have reported the lateral voltage gradient in experimental animals could be as high as 140 mV/mm. It has also been reported that within 24 hours after a wound, the epidermally generated lateral voltage drops by 95%. Therefore, it is recognized that there is a lateral voltage gradient or “lateral potential” in the epidermis close to the margin of a wound. The greatest epidermally generated lateral voltage is found in the region of highest tissue resistance. In the amphibian, the locus of the major lateral potential is at the high resistance space between the epidermis and the dermis; whereas, in the mammal, the locus of the major lateral potential is at the space between the living and the dead cornified layers of epithelium.
The role that endogenous electric fields play in bone physiology and the repair process is well documented in the medical literature. Friedenberg and Brighton first reported in 1966 that a peak of electronegativity occurred at a fracture site, along with a general electronegativity of the entire bone, when referred to the proximal epiphysis. They also noted peaks of electronegativity were measured on the skin over tibial fractures in both rabbits and humans.
There have been numerous studies conducted on the wound healing of amphibians due to the phenomenon of tissue regeneration by amphibians and because the rate of wound healing is significantly greater in amphibians than in mammals.
Winter (1964) reported that wound healing in mammalian skin occurs over days or even weeks, with epithelial cell migration rates ranging from 7 (dry wound) to 20 (wet wound) micrometers/hour. Amphibian skin wounds heal within hours, with epithelial cell migration rates ranging from 60 to more than 600 micrometers/hr. The difference in the rates of healing of mammalian skin and amphibian may be partially explained by environmental factors. More specifically, the aqueous environment of an amphibian bathes the outer surface of the epithelium and the dead cornified layer is thin and moist. As a result, the cornified layer is not a significant barrier to the movement of sodium ions into the epidermal cells. In contrast, the dead, cornified layer of mammalian skin is thick and dry, representing a significant barrier to the movement of sodium ions into the epidermal cells. It is generally recognized that dry wounds (as in mammals) heal more slowly than wounds that are kept moist by occlusive dressings. Keeping the epidermis surrounding a wound and the wound itself moist stimulates the wound to close.
In summary, it has been recognized that keeping wounds moist may simulate an environment like that which exists in amphibian healing and accelerating the mammalian healing process. U.S. Pat. No. 5,512,041 of Bogart teaches a wound dressing that promotes moist wound healing comprising a backing sheet coated with a pressure sensitive adhesive, an absorbent pad and a net extending across the pad and attached to the adhesive.
Besides the effect of moisture on wound healing, microbial growth at the site of injury has a great effect on healing time, with low bacterial counts (less than 102 to 103) promoting healing. While there are scores of antibacterial and antifungal agents, the efficacy of silver is of particular interest herein. The antimicrobial and antifungal properties of silver and silver compounds are well known. Topical preparations that contain silver or silver compounds—silver nitrate solution, silver sulfadiazine cream, colloidal silver compositions, silver-protein compounds such as Argyrol, and so forth, have been and some are widely used in medicine. The useful effects of these compositions are due to the small amounts of free silver ions produced by dissociation of the silver moiety from the compound to form ionic silver.
The effectiveness of silver as an antimicrobial agent is at least partly determined by the delivery system. Most silver compounds that dissociate readily (silver nitrate) and produce large numbers of free silver ions are highly toxic to mammalian (including human) tissues. Less-toxic compounds, including silver sulfadiazine cream (widely used in the treatment of burns) do not dissociate readily and therefore do not release large numbers of silver ions. These compounds must be re-applied frequently to maintain their clinical efficacy.
Silver and other metals have been reported to be used in wound dressings and materials therefor. Antimicrobial activity may be achieved by pure metals, metal salts, metal organic compounds or combinations of metals to create a galvanic cell reaction. Fabo (U.S. Pat. No. 5,340,363) discloses a dressing that includes an outer absorbent layer and an inner porous, hydrophobic layer knitted of elastic threads and encapsulated by a soft, hydrophobic silicone or polyurethane gel. The gel can be used as a carrier for antibacterial agents such as zinc, pain-relieving substances, and agents that stimulate wound repair. Klippel et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 3,830,908) use micronized allantoin as a carrier for a bactericidal or bacteriostatic ingredient (such as silver citro allantoinate) that is dispersed on the surface of a plastic air splint or other bandaging product. This material depends on the separation of the molecular moieties to provide the antibacterial action.
McKnight et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 3,800,792) disclose a surgical dressing having a layer of tanned, reconstituted collagen foam film laminated to a thick, continuous layer of an inert polymer. The collagen layer contains finely-divided silver metal added by soaking the collagen film in Tollen's reagent. Stowasser (U.S. Pat. No. 2,934,066) makes a dressing of absorbent metal-coated fibers, such as a carding fleece coated with aluminum and backed by compressed cellulose, and polyamide fibers coated with vacuum-deposited silver.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,782,788 of Widemire teaches that a layer of silver foil affixed to a gauze pad inhibits the growth of bacteria, viruses, and fungi by providing a source of silver ions that are driven off the foil by the negative DC field of the body.
U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,454,886, 5,681,575, and 5,770,255 to Burrell teaches a vapour deposition technique for the purpose of a sustained release of metal ions sufficient to produce an anti-microbial effect. U.S. Pat. No. 5,695,857 to Burrell teaches an active antimicrobial surface that comprises a film consisting of at least an antimicrobial element and another electrochemically nobler element and forms a multilayer galvanic cell for releasing the antimicrobial element at the surface.
Dressings for provision of electrical stimulation are also known. For example, Jones (U.S. Pat. No. 4,911,688) covers a wound with a clear cover that serves as a hollow chamber for holding a fluid such as saline in contact with a wound. When connected to a voltage source, a metal anode and a return electrode create free ions and an electrical field to enhance healing and tissue regeneration. Juhasz (U.S. Pat. No. 4,817,594) discloses a multi-layer dressing for covering discharging, malodorous wounds. The dressing includes an open mesh layer of an electrically-conductive material such as silver and a layer of charcoal fabric. Seiderman (U.S. Pat. No. 4,767,401) teaches a bandage-like device used for iontophoretic administration of medicaments, including silver-protein colloids. The device includes a metal foil electrode (preferably aluminum), and makes use of the slight inherent negative electric charge proximate a wound site to generate a small electric field at the site.
Matson (U.S. Pat. No. 4,728,323) coats a substrate (nylon fabric, polymeric film, fiberglass, gauze or polyurethane foam) with a film of a silver salt, e.g., silver chloride or silver sulfate deposited by vapor or sputter coating techniques to provide an antimicrobial effect. Alternatively, fibers can be coated and then woven or knitted into a fabric. Other silver salts referred to in this patent are silver bromide, silver fluoride, silver chloride, silver nitrate, silver sulfate, silver alkylcarboxylate, silver sulphadiazine, and silver arylsulfonate. In the dry crystalline form these salts deposited as thin films are diaelectric materials with extremely poor conductivity. When the crystalline salts are immersed in physiological solutions they continue to exhibit their dielectric characteristics. Konikoff (U.S. Pat. No. 4,142,521) shows a bandage or surgical sponge material incorporating one or more electret elements, each electret providing a small electrostatic field to the area of the wound.
Spadaro (1974) and Becker (1976) reported electrically-generated silver ions, could can penetrate deeply into the tissues, were noted to be effective even against antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria, fungi, etc., inhibiting growth in vivo and in vitro at current densities as low as 10 μA/mm2 and silver ion concentrations as low as 0.5 mg/ml. U.S. Pat. No. 4,528,265 of Becker discloses processes and products that involve subjecting mammalian cells to the influence of electrically-generated silver ions. Anodic silver causes cells such as mammalian fibroblasts to assume a simpler, relatively unspecialized form and to resemble dedifferentiated or embryonic cell types. An iontophoretic system for promoting tissue healing processes and inducing regeneration is described in Becker et al., U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/623,046, filed Mar. 28, 1996. The system is implemented by placing a flexible, silver-containing anode in contact with the wound, placing a cathode or intact skin near the anode, and applying a wound-specific DC voltage between the anode and the cathode. Electrically-generated silver ions from the anode penetrate into the adjacent tissues and undergo a sequence of reactions leading to formation of a silver-collagen complex. This complex acts as a biological inducer to cause the formation in vivo of an adequate blastema to support regeneration. The above systems have limitations in that either an electrolyte or an external voltage source is required.
Seiderman U.S. Pat. No. 4,034,750 teaches that an electrochemically active ostonic collagen paste capable of generating a galvanic current has the property of electrochemically-linking collagen fibrils to form an adherent skin-like protective membrane. Seiderman notes that when a 10% isotonic collagen paste is applied locally over a wound that an electric field is established between the collagen paste dispersion and the animal body; the paste will exhibit an overall positive charge while the areas surrounding the wound site will exhibit an effective negative electrical potential. It is generally recognized by those skilled in the art that mammalian wounds without treatment or 10% isotonic collagen paste are more positive than the surrounding tissue that will exhibit an effective negative electrical potential.
Regardless of whether silver is provided in the form of silver ions or as a topical composition (silver nitrate solution, silver sulfadiazine cream, or the like), its beneficial effects are manifested primarily at the treated surface and immediately adjacent tissues, and are limited by the achievable tissue concentration of silver ions. Despite the availability of numerous techniques for the delivery of silver and silver compounds in vitro and in vivo, there remains a need for a delivery system that is capable of supplying clinically useful concentrations of silver ions to a treatment site without the need for adjuvant electrical stimulation.
In addition to the foregoing therapeutic strategies, metals have been used to achieve diverse beneficial effects.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,577,945 of Atherton teaches a metallic film for the purpose of providing a heat-reflective surface, touching the body or raised off the body. The heat reflective surface would conserve the heat from the wound and thereby assist with wound healing.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,326,213 of Gallaher teaches the application of an electrostatically charged gold leaf film from 0.0003 to 0.1 mil thick to treat damaged mammalian tissue and arrest hemorrhaging vasculature. The electrostatic charge allows the gold leaf to cling to the body tissue.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,420,233 of Kanof teaches application of gold leaf to stimulate epithelialization of an avascular ulcer. An electrostatic differential between the gold leaf and the ulcer is achieved by apply ethyl alcohol to the ulcer.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,297,995 of Golub teaches a metal foil or a metal foil-polyester laminate forming a base plate provides a suitable barrier material for a bandage that can dispense medications.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,374,283 of Flick teaches an electrical apparatus for the treatment of body pain and edema by delivering an electrical signal/voltage.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,619,252 of Ibboott teaches a therapeutic method and therapeutic means for applying a voltage to the human body by a sheetlike battery utilizing a negative electrode composed of a metal foil such as aluminum or zinc.
In reviewing prior art, metal coatings on wound dressings have been used for: (1 thermal activity; (2) for arresting hemorrhaging vasculature; (3) for stimulating wound healing; (4) for a barrier material; (5) for delivery of electrical signals as in the form of an electrode (6) for part of a battery to apply voltage to the human body (7) for antimicrobial activity and (8) for cell modification. The prior art does not teach altering a wound's electrical parameters with a passive, highly conductive element.
The prior art does not address the restoration of a homeostatic electromagnetic field environment for wounded tissue nor the alteration of wound currents that accelerate healing. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide wound dressings and apparatus which can promote healing, stimulate cell growth, and alleviate pain through electrically conductive elements.